The Nephilim are one of the most mysterious topics featured in Genesis – and that’s saying a lot, as it’s competing with a total global flood. Many theories about the Nephilim range from fallen angels to giants. Apocryphal traditions, the original Hebrew text, and Greek translations can help demystify it all and uncover the truth about the Nephilim.

Where Do the Nephilim First Appear in Genesis?

When reading the first book of the Bible, Genesis, one can easily miss details if you’re going too quickly. Tucked away in obscure verses found in Genesis chapter 6, right before Noah’s Flood, we read something astounding:

“When man began to multiply on the face of the land and daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that the daughters of man were attractive. And they took as their wives any they chose. The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came in to the daughters of man and they bore children to them. These were the mighty men who were of old, the men of renown.” vv.1-2;4, ESV

It’s important to consider how the Bible correlates with and differs from other texts of the day, because it strengthens rather than threatens our growing understanding of Scripture.

Beyond the Bible: Enoch’s Watchers and Secret Giant Lore

The Bible was not created in a vacuum. So, we have what we call “apocryphal literature” – later Jewish writings, often about the Bible, accepted by some traditions, yet not included in the Bible.

In this broader collection, books and legends shed light on the mysterious Nephilim. Consider the book attributed to Biblical Enoch (Genesis 5:21):

Enoch’s book of the Watchers details and expands on the story of how the Nephilim brought wickedness and violence to the earth, Section I: Chapter 7 –

“4…the giants turned against 5 them and devoured mankind. And they began to sin against birds, and beasts, and reptiles, and 6 fish, and to devour one another’s flesh, and drink the blood. Then the earth laid accusation against the lawless ones.”

Mesopotamian Connections and Ancient Heroic Myths

A strangely similar idea to the Nephilim is present in Mesopotamian folklore (the Mesopotamian cultures included the Babylonian enemies of God’s people in the Bible).

They had the Apkallu as divine sages teaching humans magic and crafts. They praised this as a good thing, contrasting the Genesis version.

Many modern readers of the Bible might pull up their nose at comparative ancient literature studies. Yet the Dead Sea Scrolls prove this worth in the Book of Giants, found alongside the ancient Biblical fragments. In the Book of Giants, Gilgamesh, an ancient Mesopotamian heroic king, is described as one of these Nephilim.

But what does the Bible actually say about the sons of God and the Nephilim?

Who Were the ‘Sons of God’? The 3 Major Theories

There are three main Biblical interpretations about the “sons of God” (Bnei HaElohim) mentioned in this passage:

1. The Sethite view: The sons of God were sons of Seth (Adam’s godly son), while the ‘daughters of man’ refer to the sons of Cain.
2. The angelic view: A second theory sees the sons of God as rebellious fallen angels who fathered demigods on earth (supernatural/human hybrids).
3. The ancient rulers view: Kings and tyrant leaders throughout history have claimed to be divine descendants of God – so they were just mighty, powerful men.

Then follows the verse about the Nephilim.

Fallen Angels or Mighty Warriors of Renown

The Hebrew term for Nephilim, nāp̄îl, is from the primitive root word, nāp̄al, which means to fall down. This led to interpretations ranging from “fallen ones” (i.e., wicked angels) to “those who fall upon others” (i.e., giants). It is also translated as a bully or tyrant. So the Nephilim were large – in the literal or the figurative sense.

Contextually, this Scripture finds itself right before Noah’s flood. It is therefore believed that the Nephilim were part of the wickedness on the earth that God was displeased with.

The Hebrew Scriptures use this Nephilim word once more (Numbers 13:33), describing the inhabitants of Canaan:

“We saw the Nephilim there (the descendants of Anak come from the Nephilim). We seemed like grasshoppers in our own eyes, and we looked the same to them.” 

How Ancient Translations Shaped the Concept of Giants

Many scholars agree that Genesis was originally relayed orally, which explains the phrasing and repetition in this passage. Unfortunately, much of the original rhythm and rhyme was lost as the words were translated into new languages. In many cases, original meaning was lost too.

Genesis is one of the five books that make up the Jewish Torah: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The Septuagint (3rd century BC) is the earliest Greek translation of the Torah from the original Hebrew text. Translation is not an easy task, as you essentially have to build cultural bridges. When the Jewish scholars reached Genesis 6, they faced a challenge: How do you translate nāp̄îl into Greek?

The translators chose the closest Greek word: ‘gigantes’ (like the Titans of Greek mythology), and subsequent translations followed suit. Genesis leaves the question of the Nephilim unanswered, and it is a much-debated topic among Bible scholars today.

Following the New Testament period, various Christian writings by authors claiming to be original disciples of Jesus Christ appeared. Among these was a book that contains some of the material of the four Gospels, known as the Gospel of Peter.

The 1886 Egyptian Discovery That Unearthed a Lost Gospel

The Gospel of Peter was discovered near Nag Hammadi in 1886, though it was not part of the Nag Hammadi library discovered over 50 years later. It was probably written in the 2nd century AD, and its author shows a reasonable knowledge of what was in the Gospels, which is why some early churches appear to have used it. Other small fragments from later years also exist, containing portions considered part of the Gospel of Peter.

The Gospel of Peter is a “Passion narrative,” which relates the story of the Passion of Jesus, the story of His death, burial, and resurrection. It was known to exist due to references by some church Fathers and historians like Eusebius of Caesarea, but until its rediscovery, the contents of the Gospel of Peter were largely unknown.

How the Text Rewrites Jesus’ Final Words and the Passion Narrative

The first few known verses of the Gospel of Peter deviate from the standard Gospel narrative of the Passion story. Herod is the one who condemns Jesus, and Pilate is somewhat absolved of his responsibility after the ceremonial washing of his hands.

The Gospel of Peter adds to and alters parts of the crucifixion narrative, including a significant revision of some of Jesus’ final words. Where the Gospels of Matthew and Mark state that Jesus cries out, “My God, My God, why have you forsaken Me?” (a reference to Psalm 22), the Gospel of Peter changes the statement to “My Power, O Power, you have forsaken me!” Such a statement points to the theological opinions of the author, possibly regarding the nature of Jesus, as well as a possible misunderstanding of how Jewish people referred to parts of the Old Testament.

The Gospel of Peter also adds to the narrative of Jesus’ burial, detailing the soldiers’ actions and the sealing and miraculous opening of Jesus’ tomb. It concludes with Mary Magdalene’s visit to the tomb and the disciples returning to fishing.

While being crucified, Jesus is described as being “taken up,” not dying. He also “felt no pain”—both phrases are contradictory to what the Gospels describe. While what we have of the Gospel of Peter is incomplete, the absence of any description of the denial of Jesus by Peter is significant. Of the portion we do have, Peter’s denial of Jesus tends to fall within the part of the Passion timeline during the Crucifixion of Christ. The Gospel of Peter describes the Crucifixion part of the story, yet Peter’s denial is not there.

Why Early Church Leaders Labeled the Text a Heretical ‘Ghost Story’

The Gospel of Peter was considered non-canonical by early church leaders, such as Bishop Serapion of Antioch. Eusebius, in compiling his historical works, wrote that Serapion initially approved the usage of the Gospel of Peter, while denying that Peter was the author. Serapion later condemned the work after further study, claiming that it contained heresies related to Marcionism or Docetism, which believe that Jesus Christ did not come in a physical form, but was a sort of ghost or phantasm. Also, the Gospel of Peter has some distinct differences in the Passion narrative from the canonical Gospels and is not considered canon due to these differences.

Few archaeological discoveries have made a bigger impact on Bible history than the Dead Sea Scrolls. These scroll fragments were tucked away in caves for thousands of years, then rediscovered in 1947. The Qumran scrolls add evidence to how accurately the Bible was transcribed over millennia and offer helpful insights into the Jewish religion in the Second Temple period as a whole.

The Accidental Discovery in the Caves of Qumran

There’s a legendary tale of Bedouin shepherds searching for a lost goat near the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. Following its bleats over the barren terrain, the shepherds stumbled upon something magnificent: a cave filled with strange-looking jars. Curiosity got the better of them, and they opened the jars to find scrolls with ancient writing…

Whether the 1947 discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls was truly as romanticized or found intentionally is up for debate. Either way, it was not long before many institutions, scholars, archaeologists, and treasure hunters learned about the ancient leather and papyrus found in the caves of Qumran. 

A massive archaeological surveying effort followed that lasted nearly a decade and identified 11 total caves that preserved these mysterious ancient scrolls for centuries. Among the scrolls was one made of copper – a literal treasure map, indicating locations. It can be viewed in the Jordan Museum at Amman.

Uncovering the Oldest Surviving Manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible

Upon interpretation, it became evident that the words on some (about 40%) of these scrolls felt strangely familiar. They were Hebrew manuscripts (of what Christians call the Old Testament today). Given the geographic location of the caves, this is not entirely surprising, but the fact that they remained hidden for so long baffles researchers.

These scrolls, dating from roughly 300 BC to 50 AD, predated every other known Hebrew religious manuscript found before the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls by over a thousand years. Minor textual variations, found here and there, provided Bible scholars and linguists alike unprecedented insight into the accurate evolution of ancient scripture, from oral traditions to scrolls, to the way it is known today. For the most part, these scrolls are strangely similar.

Fragments of every Old Testament book except the Book of Esther were found on the scrolls (38 of the 39 books).

The Great Isaiah Scroll and the Preservation of Sacred Text

Among the fragments, one scroll stood out. A large 24-foot (7 meter) scroll of the Book of the prophet Isaiah was found inside Cave 1. The Isaiah scroll consists of 17 sheets of animal parchment sewn together. This Qumran Isaiah text’s similarity to previously found but later penned Hebrew copies shows us the impressive accuracy of Jewish scribes. It is nearly identical.

Lost Books and the Apocalyptic Vision of the Essenes

Not all the scrolls found in the Dead Sea caves were Scriptural, however. Some are manuscripts with instructions or rules for a specific community on how to live. This Qumran community is identified by scholars as the Essenes — an ascetic group living in the Judean desert.

Other noteworthy scrolls include a book attributed to Biblical Enoch and apocalyptic visions like that of Daniel. There’s also a scroll, the Messianic Apocalypse, that lists miracles in the same sequence copied in Luke 7:21-22, 150 years later.

The Dead Sea Scrolls have received attention from both Bible historians and fans. An (in)famous advertisement in The Wall Street Journal of 1954 advertised four scrolls for sale, and, beginning around 2002, a wave of sophisticated modern forgeries of scroll fragments appeared on the open antiquities market that fooled some private collectors and even museums.

How the Manuscripts Transformed Early Jewish and Christian History

The Dead Sea Scrolls offer us a rare glimpse into Second Temple Judaism since many of the religion’s other remains were lost in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. It also sheds light on the Early Christian movement to some extent.

This is why the Qumran scrolls are such a significant find: this fairly recent (1947) discovery of 11 caves holding ancient scrolls that were well preserved, buried beneath the desert soil in clay jars and kept intact by the dry climate. The scrolls lay undiscovered and unmoved in those caves while life went on outside them.

It reminds us that the history of the Bible is not merely tradition or religion, but that this ancient Scripture has deep roots in real-world terrain still being uncovered today.

In the wake of the Protestant Reformation, ignited by Martin Luther in 1517, continental Europe was not the only region to feel the impact of his actions. In England and Scotland, the Reformation took hold as well, though it began by different means.

The Tudor Divorce That Shook British Religion

King Henry VIII, concerned about his succession, sought an annulment of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon from the Roman Catholic Pope Clement VII in 1527. After several refusals, Henry VIII, under the Act of Supremacy in 1534, became the supreme head of the Church of England and split off its authority from the Roman Catholic Church. While Henry VIII was no Protestant and had previously been declared a Defender of the Faith by the Pope, the split from Roman Catholicism allowed England to govern religious matters under its own authority. Henry VIII’s son, Edward VI, was definitively Protestant in his theology and instituted many Protestant reforms into the Church of England.

Forbidden Protestant Ideas Flood the Scottish Borders

Independent from the Church of England since Pope Celestine III in 1192 declared it to be out from under the authority of the English, the Church of Scotland’s leaders were allowed to be chosen by the Scottish Kings, resulting in issues with corruption and complaints. In the 1520s, Protestant ideas had been filtering in through both continental Europe and England, and significant resistance from the Catholic authorities even resulted in a few deaths for some people proclaiming Protestant ideas, such as Patrick Hamilton, who was burned at the stake at the age of 24. 

James V, who became King of Scotland in 1528, did little to correct the problems of corruption that had arisen in the Church of Scotland, and the environment among both the Scottish nobility and commoners was one of general disillusionment with Roman Catholicism.  

The influence of France on Scotland, a predominantly Catholic nation, was also significant, to the degree that England began seeking more influence in Scottish affairs. This culminated in invasions of southeast Scotland in the 1540s after Scotland refused to marry the young Mary, Queen of Scots, to Edward VI.

Angry Protestants Seize St Andrews Castle

In 1546, Scottish Protestants, including a young John Knox, took up arms against their Catholic masters. Following the martyrdom of the influential reformer George Wishart, Knox and others invaded St Andrews Castle in Fife, Scotland, and killed Cardinal Beaton. Following a year’s siege, many of those inside, including Knox, were taken as captives to France.  

Secret Churches Fuel a Protestant Resurgence

The arrest, imprisonment, and forced labor of the reformers captured at St Andrews was merely a stall in the Scottish Reformation. By 1555, various local secret churches, or “privy kirks,” had been formed around local Scottish nobility residences, including direct relatives of James V.  In 1559, Protestantism had become more open among the Scottish, and had succeeded in growing popular support to the point where Protestants were taking over control of various areas. 

The Dangerous Pact That Renounced Roman Catholicism

In December 1557, various Scottish nobles met in Edinburgh and established what is considered the First Covenant of Scotland. Herein, they vowed:

“…before the Majesty of God, and his Congregation, That we (by his grace) shall with all diligence continually apply our whole power, substance, and our very lives, to maintain, set forward, and establish the most blessed Word of God, and his Congregation”

After a near-war with France and the timely intervention of Queen Elizabeth I of England on their behalf against the French, the Scots were free from French control. The Scottish Parliament – the Reformation Parliament – was then free to meet and help further establish the Church of Scotland as a reformed church, now totally separate from Roman Catholicism. The Scots Confession was passed, and the Roman Catholic Mass was banned.

Creating a Church Free From Royal Control

Now a church free to handle its own affairs, in December 1560, the First General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in Edinburgh, with no direction from any civil authority. It compiled the First Book of Discipline, which did get approval from the nobility, but still had no civil endorsement – and that is the way the Scottish reformers wanted it. 

By 1567, the Church of Scotland was accepted by the Scottish Parliament as being separate from state establishment, and having authority in and of itself without state approval. However, while Scotland had gained its religious freedom, there were still problems coming, notably King James VI.

When Jesus multiplied the fishes and the loaves, he was not just doing another miracle. Christ’s and the disciples’ concern about the crowd’s nutrition highlights the socio-economic context he found himself in, revealing a brutal class divide in Roman Judea. This miracle took on a deeper meaning as the humble lunch of a poor boy brought relief from not only their spiritual, but also their physical hunger.

The Poverty and Hopeful Expectations of First Century Palestine

In the parables of Jesus, he repeatedly opted for metaphors and wording that had to do with nature and farming. That was because the people he was teaching all understood one language: that of agriculture.

Zooming out beyond a Biblical timeline into secular history, these were the days following Alexander the Great. Rome was in power, enforcing strict taxation laws on Jews and other displaced peoples living in the region. Many families were living a hand-to-mouth existence and were forced to give the best of the land (wheat, olive oil, wine) to the ruling empire.

The Jews cried out to their God to send the promised one who would save them from the oppression and suffering they faced, just like they were saved from slavery in Egypt about 1500 years prior. What they prayed for was a mighty warrior king on a stallion, but they got a humble rabbi riding a donkey instead. 

Wheat for Elites and Barley for Beasts

While wheat was seen as a luxury grain, because of its softness and light color, coarse and heavy barley was all that remained for the poor. 

“As a foodstuff it [barley] is of somewhat doubtful merit, suited to irrational animals and men in unhappy circumstances.”
– Philo, a Hellenistic Jew and philosopher

In ancient Jewish literature (like what we know as the Old Testament), barley was described as the food of beasts.

• Prophetic imagery: The prophet Elisha compares ‘the finest flour’ directly with barley in 2 Kings 7.
• Book of Hosea: A man has to buy back his wife who turned against him and chose a life of prostitution. In the end, the price Hosea pays to get her back is 15 shekels of silver and some barley (Hosea 3:2). 

“Barley bread, which was the ancient foodstuff of the common people, has now been relegated to the use of beasts.”
– Pliny the Elder

How Roman Taxation & Temple Offerings Pushed Local Farmers to the Brink

The severe tax burden on Judean peasants surfaced often in the life and teachings of Jesus: “Is it right for us to pay taxes to Caesar or not?” (Luke 20:22). 

Rome imposed land tax (10-20%), poll tax (one annual payment per person), and further indirect tolls. Yet the remainder of their money had to be given to the Temple. The heavy burden of the law of Moses did much more than state that a person must tithe 10% to the “church.”  They also had to bring countless other offerings and gifts in order to obtain righteousness before God. 

All of this is before wicked religious leaders, like money-loving Pharisees, who twisted the law to get a second 10%, the first fruits of the harvest, and even more. The taxation and offerings took more than 40% of a family’s income, forcing farmers to sell their best crops and subsist on inferior grains like barley.

Social Standing Measured by the Daily Loaf

What a person ate in that time and day said a lot. This is part of the reason why the New Testament authors make such a big deal of Jesus dining with sinners. Consider, for example, when Jesus goes to the house of Zaccheus the tax collector for a meal. 

Instead of suffering with the crowds, it seemed to them that Jesus often accepted invitations (and even invited himself) to dine with the wealthy. Even one of his twelve disciples, Matthew, was a tax collector before joining Jesus’ company!

In a society where social standing was measured by the daily loaf, Jesus’ actions infuriated the crowds. Christ’s ability to cross over socio-economic barriers was a major reason why the people eventually turned on him and killed him.

In Roman Judea, food security and malnutrition were a reality in the first century, echoed in the believer’s prayer: “Give us today our daily bread”.

Recontextualizing the Dietary Reality of the Ancient Poor

When this reality is applied to the miracle where Jesus used five barley loaves and two fish to feed thousands, the event takes on new meaning. The disciples’ concern about the hungry crowd in the middle of nowhere makes it clear that there was truly no food. Interestingly, this crowd resembles the hungry Israelites in the wilderness after the Exodus before God rained down manna on them for sustenance.

The boy’s lunch of five barley loaves indicates the extreme poverty of the crowd. When Jesus took the boy’s bread, it was not the food of the rich, but of the poor. Yet afterward, there were even leftovers. He had turned their scarcity into abundance. 

This socio-economic perspective of a well-known miracle exemplifies the value of using social history to understand ancient texts like the Bible— the five barley loaves reveal the harsh truth about what life was like in Roman Judea.

When we think of mythology, we are often talking about gods, monsters, dragons, and super-powered heroes. Most mythology worldwide predates Christianity, and while Christianity contains fantastical elements, much of it has been documented within such a short timeframe after the actual events that, at minimum, the mythological element is removed.

Mythology tends to develop through various stories that were rooted in some facts, and often those facts are not completely known, so people created stories to fill in the gaps (or to sell books). For Christianity, much of the development happened in the late medieval era, where we see post-Biblical stories arise regarding Christian heroes and the challenges they faced.

How Did Centuries of Medieval Writers Construct the Legend of King Arthur?

Likely the most prominent figure of Christian mythology is that of King Arthur. The development of his story is long and draws on many early medieval stories and concepts. Even Joseph of Arimathea, in whose tomb Jesus Christ was laid, plays a part. King Arthur’s myth is inseparable from another prominent Christian myth, that of the Holy Grail. King Arthur is likely an amalgamation of various historical figures who lived beginning around 500 AD after the Anglo-Saxon invasion of England. 

When the Welsh cleric Geoffrey of Monmouth in the 1100s wrote his History of the Kings of Britain, Merlin, Guinevere, Mordred, and Avalon entered the story. The Holy Grail and several other knights entered around that time from France. By 1485, Sir Thomas Malory, in his Le Morte D’Arthur, had combined all the elements of the classic Arthurian myth.

How Did Biblical Serpent Symbolism Evolve Into the Myth of St George?

The story of a hero slaying a great beast is common throughout the mythology of every culture. Hercules and Gilgamesh are among the examples we have in the West, but the one most closely aligned with Christianity is St George and the Dragon. The tale in its full form arises in Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend, a chronicle of mostly fantastical lives of saints. The myth of St George may have come from a similar tale of St Theodore Tiron, who was a soldier-turned-saint who lived in the 300s AD.  

Serpent images were common in Christian iconography as a representative of Satan (from the Garden of Eden in Genesis). The snake images gradually turned into dragons, and by the 900s it was Theodore slaying a dragon, sometimes alongside George. St George would replace Theodore in a more developed myth by the time de Voragine wrote the Golden Legend.

How Christian Faith Transformed a Pagan Epic

One of the traits of Christian myth is that it tended to replace pagan ideas and images within stories with Christian ones. Such replacement is probably most prominent in the Beowulf story.

Beowulf comes along at a strange time historically. Two cultures were clashing in the 800s around when Beowulf was written—pagan northern Europe and Roman Catholic southern Europe. 

The story combines Biblical elements, such as Grendel being a descendant of Cain, and the aid of God in Beowulf’s success, with what may have been historical Scandinavian figures such as Hrothgar, Halfdan, and Halga from the 500s AD. What developed was a rich tale of good versus evil, courage, and death. The story does not appear to have a specific literary ancestor, and almost disappeared, as only a single copy from around 1000 AD survived.

Medieval Chroniclers Recorded and Exaggerated Local Legends

In addition to King Arthur and the Holy Grail, St George, and Beowulf, medieval writers often collected and exaggerated local stories. Sometimes the stories were adapted from pagan tales, others from strange miracles supposedly performed by some saints. What resulted was an often questionable historical record as to those figures. However, the usefulness of the stories allows us to see into the past regarding the cultures and people of those times, which gave rise to the stories of the fictional heroes we have today.

Scattered on the hillside in seemingly random groups, the hungry crowd sat filled with anticipation for what would come next: Would it rain manna from Heaven like in Moses’s day?

When Jesus gathered a young boy’s simple lunch and raised it in blessing, his every move was calculated, and his message was loud and clear.

The Context of First-Century Judean Politics

About 1500 years after Moses led the Israelites out of Egyptian captivity as slaves and into the wilderness, there were rumors spreading of a second Moses. Finding themselves in a desperate situation once more, the people remembered the promise Moses made to them so many years ago:  

“The Lord your God will raise up
a prophet like me from among you”
(Deuteronomy 18:15)

While they were free from the Pharaoh’s rule and forced labor of generations prior, the Jews faced the tense socio-political environment of Roman-occupied Judea during the first century.

Their every move was watched, while they prayed for the day their deliverer would come in all God’s glory. Their expectation was not only for someone like Moses, but for the king promised throughout the Scriptures and the prophets, the one who would be the Son of God and the Son of Man. 

The Exodus Blueprint and the Law of Moses

Biblical theologians would be careful to call Jesus a second Moses or a new Moses, since that is not exactly what Scripture states:

“Moses was faithful as a servant in all God’s house…
But Christ is faithful as the Son over God’s house.”
(Hebrews 3:5-6)

Yet there were some unmistakable similarities in the actions of Jesus and those of Moses, as evidenced in the miraculous feeding of the five thousand. The parallels find their origins in three specific parts of the well-known warning that Moses’s father-in-law, Jethro, gave him in Exodus 18.

• “Select capable men from all the people and appoint them as officials…”  (v.21)  
• “…over thousands, hundreds, fifties and tens.” (v.21) 
• “…and all these people will go home satisfied.” (v. 23)

Jesus also chose capable men, divided the crowds into groups, and all the people were satisfied.

Organizing a Multitude into Military Units

First-century Jewish peasants awaited their coming king, while they held onto the law taught by Moses in the wilderness. Here, they found themselves in a wilderness again with someone like Moses leading them.

The Roman Empire was not unaware of Christ’s presence and popularity in the region. The strict rule of Rome would have monitored the growing group following Jesus, as evidenced in the Gospels when centurions approach him for healing. Yet Jesus blatantly made dangerous decisions, sending a clear message. 

• He utilized the disciples as capable men (Luke 9:15).
• He had them sit down in groups of fifty (Luke 9:14 and Mark 6:39).
• They all ate and were satisfied (Luke 9:17).
• They were in a remote place (Matthew 14:15).
• The crowd was “like sheep without a shepherd” (Mark 6:34).
• Afterward, the people called him the prophet (John 6:14).

Why the Wilderness Was the Space for Rebellion

The similarities summarized above would not be lost on the Jewish crowd or even the Roman soldiers patrolling nearby or monitoring the situation from within. Gathering outside the urban center, in a crowd of over five thousand, being organized into groups, listening to teaching, and receiving a meal was not a normal event then—just as it isn’t today.  

Throughout Scripture, the wilderness or desert takes on the metaphoric and literal role of the location where pivotal moments took place. Consider John the Baptist, the desert prophet who wore camel hair clothing and ate locusts and wild honey. Perhaps it is no coincidence that three of the four Gospels mention the beheading of John by the Roman client king, Herod, right before mentioning the miracle at hand.

The crowd re-enacted the Exodus in real time, receiving not only spiritual food (teaching) but also physical food (bread and fish) from Jesus.

The Threat to Rome and the Fear of a New Moses

Such a structured mobilization in the desert would cause warning signals to flare for Roman officials and local elites (like the Herodians). 

Compare this with what happened when Theudas gathered a group at the Jordan River to watch him split the water as Moses and Joshua did. He was killed and beheaded in a surprise attack by Rome before he could even try to enact his miracle. 

The crowd understood the political significance of what had happened in this wilderness revolution. We already discovered that they called Jesus a prophet (like Moses) after the miracle, but there was one more thing they wanted to do before Jesus got away from them: They wanted to take him by force and crown him king (John 6:13).

This is but one example of how utilizing social history reframes ancient religious narratives into complex studies of imperial friction and political theater.

In 1309, Pope Clement V moved the papal court from Rome to Avignon in France. Over the next 70 years, the curia grew deep roots in Avignon. The cardinals lived lavishly, and it seemed that the political pressure exerted by the French monarchy would keep the Papacy in southern France for the foreseeable future. That is, until the culmination of a series of political events in Italy, and the urging of a remarkable mystic from Siena, combined to force Pope Gregory XI to move the Papacy back to Rome.

Catherine of Siena

Catherine was born in 1347, in the Republic of Siena, in what is today central Italy. From the age of five, she reported having visions of Christ and the Apostles, and by age seven, Catherine swore that her life would be given to serving God. When she was 16, she was expected to marry, but Catherine went on a hunger strike until her parents relented and backed off their demand. She lived like a monastic, confining herself to a small room in her family’s house, spending most of her time in silence and solitude.

At the age of 21, Catherine claimed that she experienced what she called a Mystical Marriage, wherein she married Jesus. After this marriage, she received a vision from Jesus telling her to leave her cloistered life of seclusion and go out into the world. She helped the sick, the poor, and the downtrodden of Siena. Between her charity and her vivid descriptions of the visions she claimed to regularly receive from God, she gained a reputation as a holy woman. This reputation was further strengthened when, in 1375, she claimed to have received the stigmata, the physical representation of Christ’s wounds during his crucifixion, and an extraordinarily powerful manifestation of holiness in Catholic tradition.

This holiness brought her into the political world, and eventually to a fateful meeting with the pope in Avignon.

Pope Gregory XI

Pierre Roger de Beaufort was born into nobility in Maumont, France, in 1329. He was a nephew of Pope Clement VI, and thanks to this family connection, he was appointed as a cardinal at the age of 18. He studied law and theology and gained a good reputation among the papal court. When Pope Urban V died in 1370, the conclave unanimously chose Pierre to be the next pope. He chose the name Gregory XI, but since he was not a priest, he was quickly ordained the day before he was formally crowned Pope.

Gregory’s pontificate saw conflict all over Western Europe. He tried to mediate the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, but ultimately failed. He also found himself in conflict with many of the Italian cities throughout his reign. The Italians were bitter about the Papacy being moved to France and sought to expand their own power and influence at the expense of the Papal States.

The first conflict was with Milan, whose Duke, Bernabo Visconti, seized Reggio and other papal fiefs. Gregory excommunicated Visconti, hoping that would be enough to make the duke back down. However, Visconti thought so little of the act that he imprisoned the legates who brought him the Bull of excommunication and refused to release them until they ate the parchment on which it was written and the lead papal seal that affixed it.

After this humiliation, Gregory declared war on Visconti. The war raged for three years until Milan sued for peace in 1375, gaining favorable terms in the settlement thanks to some well-placed bribes of papal officials.

Intercession

After the war with Milan concluded, the city of Florence organized a broad anti-papal coalition of Italian cities. Perhaps remembering the humiliation he suffered at the hands of the Duke of Milan, Gregory acted swiftly and harshly. He excommunicated all members of the Florentine government, he removed legal protections that had formerly prohibited the arrest and enslavement of Florentines throughout Europe, and placed Florence under interdict. The interdict banned all religious services except baptism, last rites, and certain Masses on holy days.

The results were catastrophic for Florence, and they sought a mediator to negotiate an end to such harsh reprisals. They turned to Catherine of Siena. She had already been in contact with Gregory while the crisis was brewing, writing to him to ask for leniency. As the crisis deepened, the Florentines requested that Catherine journey to Avignon and negotiate with Gregory to plead their case in person. They hoped that such a holy woman would be the best representative for their cause.

Catherine’s Mission

While Catherine did indeed plead the case of the Tuscans before the pope, she would ultimately prove unsuccessful. However, she had a secondary goal in traveling to Avignon. She had come to believe that it was her mission to return the Papacy to its rightful place in Rome.

While we do not know exactly what was said in their personal audiences, Catherine continued to write letters to the pope while in Avignon, which survive to this day. It is important to note that Catherine was illiterate until late in her life, so most of her letters were dictated, allowing us, in a way, to hear her very voice echo across the centuries. These letters show an extraordinary level of directness and boldness. The urgency she felt in what she saw as her divine mission can be seen in this excerpt from early April 1376:

“Come, come, don’t resist any longer the will of God who is calling you… The starving little sheep are waiting for you to come and take possession of the place of your predecessor and model, the apostle Peter… You, as Christ’s vicar, ought to be residing in your proper place. Come! Come! Come!”

Challenges

While it is impossible to know anyone’s true thoughts, let alone those of someone who lived over 600 years ago, it is likely that before Catherine’s arrival, Gregory had already considered moving the Papacy back to Rome. The discontent in northern Italy and the Papal States themselves only grew worse the longer the pope and cardinals stayed in France, and some sources indicate that Gregory had made a private vow to return to Rome if elected Pope. However, the papal court had grown deep roots in Avignon, and the vast majority of cardinals and officials preferred to remain there rather than journey back to Rome.

Catherine herself speaks to the forces trying to keep Gregory in Avignon when she wrote in early August 1376, “May a blazing flame of charity so burn in you that you will not let yourself listen to the voice of incarnate devils, will not let yourself take the advice of evil counselors. Their foundation is in self-centeredness, and as I understand they want to frighten you by saying you’ll be killed. They say this to keep you from coming. And I am telling you, in the name of Christ crucified … not to be afraid for any reason whatsoever.”

She saw the struggle over where the Papacy would reside through the lens of the cosmic battle between good and evil, between God and Satan. Those trying to keep the pope in Avignon were on the side of the devil, but she spoke in the name of Christ. This view is even more explicit in a letter from mid-August 1376, where she said, “I understand from the note you sent me that you are being harassed by the enemies of all good, who never stop tempting you.”

Gregory’s Relationship With Catherine

Gregory’s letters to Catherine do not survive, so we only have one side of the conversation. However, Catherine will often refer to what Gregory had written to her in her letters, so we can somewhat reconstruct the flow of their conversation.

Gregory clearly placed a high value on what Catherine said and thought, often asking her for advice and explaining his difficulties to her. He would also ask her to pray for him, a powerful request for someone who regularly received visions from God.

From some of Catherine’s letters, it seems that Gregory was not a very forceful personality, easily swayed depending on who he spoke with last. In one extraordinary instance, Catherine writes that God said, “Tell him the more opposition he encounters … the more he will feel a courage growing within him that no one can take away, though this is contrary to his natural bent.”

Catherine’s letters show an extraordinary familiarity and boldness, astonishing for a laywoman addressing the head of Western Christendom. She regularly calls Gregory “Babbo,” which was a term roughly equivalent to “Daddy” in the Tuscan dialect, a word used by young children to address their father.

In early September 1376, Gregory wrote to Catherine saying that he was threatened with death if he returned to Rome. Catherine is not moved by the threat. She does not try to console Gregory by saying that he will not be killed; instead, she says, “You will be more concerned about God’s honor and the salvation of your sheep than about yourself—like a good shepherd who should lay down his life for his sheep.”

Catherine was very consciously drawing on the biblical imagery of Jesus as the good shepherd, and also on the long tradition of Christian martyrdom. She further says, “I beg you in the name of Christ crucified not to be a timid child but a courageous man.”

The Return to Rome

Political realities in Italy and Catherine’s forceful personality combined to finally push Gregory to take the momentous decision to return to Rome in 1376. It was not a popular decision among the papal court. Pierre Amelia, Bishop of Senigallia, later wrote an account of the return to Rome, where he exclaimed, “God! If only the mountains would move and block our journey!”

Gregory XI entered Rome on January 17, 1377. Unfortunately, he was already in poor health, and he died just over a year later on March 27, 1378.

The conclave after his death is infamous due to the angry mob that surrounded the Apostolic Palace, implicitly threatening violence if an Italian wasn’t chosen. The conclave ultimately elected Urban VI, but shortly thereafter, a group of cardinals claimed that the election was invalid due to the cardinals fearing for their life. This breakaway group elected a rival Pope who returned to Avignon. This was the beginning of the Great Western Schism, where there were two, and eventually three, popes ruling simultaneously.

For her part, Catherine vehemently backed Urban VI in the schism, never relenting in her belief that the pope needed to be in Rome for all to be right with the world.

Catherine would die at the age of 33 on April 29, 1380. She was later canonized as a saint in 1461 by Pope Pius II.

The early Church utilized art as a means of communication, as a secret way to express their faith in Christ and (hopefully) sidestep Roman persecution. Examining these coded images, such as fish and bread, helps explore how early Christian communities turned to art as a means of expression and survival.

The Subterranean World of Imperial Rome

Outside the city walls of ancient Rome, in the year 1578, archaeologists stumbled upon extensive underground tunnels organized into intricate networks that appeared to have been used primarily as tombs. There was little doubt as to who the people were who used these underground burial networks, because they identified themselves using art. 

In a society where the early Church faced severe persecution under Roman law as a forbidden superstition (religio illicita), the first Christians expressed themselves away from the public eye, underground.

Despite the probable toxic fumes of decomposing corpses, the tight spaces, and dim lighting, the Roman Catacombs became the canvas that held their passionate beliefs. Art became a means of communication in these low-profile sanctuaries, safely tucked away from the persecution these early Christians faced above ground.

The Visual Language of Survival Under Persecution

There is something striking about the catacombs being both a place of mourning and artistic expression. It reminds one of Ezekiel’s prophecy where the valley of dead bones come back to life by the word of God. For the God of the Bible has always been One who brings beauty from ashes.

Roman authorities were likely aware of the catacombs, yet the art inside still indicates some fear of being found out. The early Christians adopted and altered existing pagan art motifs, probably to avoid suspicion. Facing Roman persecution, art offered secret signs and a mode of communication. 

While modern Christian imagery popularly prefers the cross, the gruesome reality of crucifixion in those times meant that image would not appeal to them as something awe-inspiring. Their chosen visual language, still evident in some catacombs today, favored imagery such as fish, bread, and lambs.

Decoding the Cryptographic Secrets of Ancient Christian Imagery

Art offers an ambiguous method for oppressed peoples to provide solidarity to one another subtly and safely. Consider the edelweiss flower pins worn by youth opposing Hitler’s reign, or the flying geese patterns embroidered by African American slaves. 

The ancient Christian icons often depicted events from the life of Jesus through multi-layered metaphors. One such example is found in the history of the fish symbol (Greek = Ichtys). Legend has it that this was a mnemonic device where each letter of the word became a code in the message of the Gospel, stating Jesus Christ was the Son of God and the Savior. Jesus called disciples to be fishers of men, so a fish became the preferred sign.

Another example of cryptographic or encoded catacomb art is the common images of bread, referencing God’s provision (the wilderness manna), Jesus’ multiplication miracle (of the loaves and fishes), and the use of the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist).

Art and Its Meaning Inside the Catacomb of Callixtus

It’s fascinating that this network of burial caves was forgotten for so many years and truly astounding that the artworks were preserved so well despite their fragile state. The catacomb of Callixtus along the Appian Way, for example, is home to frescoes from around the 3rd century, offering a real window into what life was like for the early Christians. 

Here, large and well-kept paintings reveal Christian meanings to the observer who knows what to look for. 

• An image of a young man carrying a lamb on his shoulders seems random enough, but it echoes Jesus’ teaching where he said: “I am the good shepherd” (John 10:11).

• Or an image of fish and bread clearly holds five loaves, the same amount Jesus used to feed the multitude. It is also interpreted as Jesus (remember Ichtys?) giving spiritual food.

The Evolution From Subterranean Graffiti to Renaissance Masterpieces

These were the humble beginnings of the art history of the early Church. The parables that Jesus used to teach became a kind of hidden language, offering persecuted Christians the solidarity and comfort they so needed. The events of his life, memorized and repeated, slowly became traditions marking this persecuted minority as an emerging religion. Following the Edict of Milan, art would still be used to express the faith, but with no more of the limitations posed by the conditions underground.

These early Christian symbols were not the only archaeological evidence found indicating who was laid to rest in these tombs. They also found scrolls naming believers, rooms for funerary customs, and small trinkets left with bodies to identify them (many of which were already looted). 

Whether the catacombs were a secret from Roman officials or not, the images painted in them are evidence of a certain coded language used by the first believers to express their faith boldly.

The majority of scholars readily accept that Jesus was a real historical figure who was crucified. Many also agree that, following the crucifixion, his disciples honestly believed that they saw his resurrected body. However, historians part ways on whether Christ was actually raised from the dead, with some offering naturalistic theories to explain the Resurrection.

What Christians Believe

Christians believe that Jesus rose physically from the dead and appeared to the disciples and others in a glorified body, a body that would never get sick, grow old, or die. This miracle is at the heart of Christianity. The apostle Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians, wrote,

“What I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas (Peter), and then to the Twelve (disciples). After that, he appeared to more than five hundred of the brothers and sisters at the same time, most of whom are still living, though some have fallen asleep (died). Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles, and last of all he appeared to me also, as to one abnormally born” (1 Corinthians 15:3-8).

Naturalism and Miracles

Beginning early in the 18th century, some scholars started to challenge the truth claims of the Bible and the validity of miracles. Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1771) wrote in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding that rational people, when offered multiple choices to explain an event, will choose the explanation that is most probable, and that miracles are the most improbable explanation of all.

His statement reflects the rise of the philosophy of naturalism. Naturalism purports that nothing exists outside the natural world, thereby excluding the possibility of anything or anyone supernatural, such as God, and that so-called miracles have a natural explanation. In light of this, some scholars have attempted to explain the resurrection of Jesus as a naturalistic event.

1. The Swoon Theory

Proponents of the swoon theory suggest that Jesus did not die on the cross, but was still alive when his friends removed him from it. Critics respond that it is highly unlikely that anyone could endure what Christ went through and remain alive.

The Roman soldiers were experts when it came to the matter of torturing and killing people. After divesting Jesus of his clothes, they would have chained him to a pillar so that he would not collapse as they beat him with whips that consisted of multiple strands of leather with metal balls woven throughout them. At the end of each of the ropes were pieces of glass, nails, and bone—anything sharp that would cut deeply into the flesh and strip his skin off, exposing muscle and bone on his back, his buttocks, his chest, and his legs. Jesus would have lost a great deal of blood in the process. These beatings were called “the half-death” because half the people flagellated in this manner died from the whipping.

At that point and in that state, Jesus was forced to carry his cross to the location of his crucifixion on Golgotha, also known as the Place of the Skull, because the hill was skull-shaped. The Gospels record that he fell many times, and Matthew, Mark, and Luke note that the soldiers pulled a man named Simon, who was from Cyrene, from the crowd and made him help Jesus with the cross.

Then there is the process of the crucifixion, a truly brutal and excruciating way to die. First, the soldiers laid Jesus on the cross on the ground and pounded nails through the two bones in each of his wrists (which Jews considered part of the hand) rather than his palms, as they would not hold him upright. They then crossed his feet and drove a spike through them, at which point they lifted him up.

As his body sank down, Jesus would have had to push himself up using his feet as breathing became difficult. In fact, he would have had to do this with every breath that he took for the six hours that he hung on the cross. Additionally, he would have been dehydrated, not having had anything to drink since his arrest. Finally, he died. A Roman soldier shoved a spear up between his ribs into his heart to make sure that he was truly dead.

Experts say that it would be impossible to survive all of that and dismiss the swoon theory as highly improbable, if not totally impossible.

2. The Hallucination Theory

The American Psychological Association defines a hallucination as “a false sensory perception that has a compelling sense of reality despite the absence of an external stimulus.” In other words, people see, hear, smell, taste, and feel things that are not really there. Researchers tell us that 50 percent of the population will have hallucinations of their loved ones after their death. British Bible scholar Michael Goulder (1927-2010) suggested that this was the case with Christ’s followers who claimed to see the resurrected Jesus. He said they were merely hallucinating.

There is one major problem with this theory. People cannot share identical hallucinations when they are awake, just as they cannot share identical dreams during sleep. Paul tells us in 1 Corinthians 15:6 that 500 people saw him at the same time, and he notes that many of those people were still alive at the time of his writing. Jesus also appeared to a number of his disciples in the Upper Room, where Thomas doubted that Christ was really there among them, causing Jesus to invite him to touch the wounds on his body (John 20:19-31). And Jesus shared breakfast with Peter and the other disciples on the beach of the Sea of Galilee (John 21:1-14). These episodes indicate that the sightings of Jesus were not hallucinations.

3. The Stolen Body Theory

Some scholars have speculated that Christ’s tomb was empty simply because his body was removed. Some suggest that the Romans might have stolen it or, perhaps, the Jewish leaders. However, there is no apparent reason for either of these groups to remove the corpse. In fact, it would serve their purposes more to leave the dead body there to prove Jesus was a mere mortal, not the long-awaited Messiah. Others say that his followers probably took it because they wanted to make everyone believe that Jesus really had risen from the dead.

Christian apologists point to the traditional belief that all the apostles, except John and Judas (who committed suicide), were tortured and executed because of their belief in the resurrection of Jesus. We read in Acts 12:2 that James, the son of Zebedee, was beheaded by Herod Agrippa I (44 AD). Tradition has it that Peter was crucified upside down in Rome. Andrew was said to be crucified in Greece, while Philip was also supposedly crucified or beheaded. It is possible that Barnabas was also beheaded. Either that or he was flayed to death. Both Thomas and Matthew were supposedly stabbed to death with spears, Thomas in India and Matthew in Ethiopia. Lastly, James was either beaten or stoned to death.

Christian apologists say that, if Christ’s followers had removed his body to convince people of his resurrection, it is highly unlikely that they would have given up their lives for something they knew to be a lie.

4. The Wrong Tomb Theory

Some scholars suggest that the women who went to anoint Christ’s body simply went to the wrong tomb, one that was indeed empty. However, Mary Magdalene was present at his crucifixion, and all four gospels attest to the fact that she was with the men who laid him in his grave. It had only been a couple of days since they did this. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that she would have forgotten where the body of Jesus rested and gone to the wrong tomb. Thus, this theory is easily debunked.

5. The Substitution or Replacement Theory

The substitution theory takes two forms. One suggests that someone replaced Jesus on the cross and died in his place, someone such as Simon of Cyrene, the man who helped carry Christ’s cross to Golgotha. In fact, the idea that someone volunteered to take Jesus’s place has been popular among Muslims for centuries. But why would a bystander step up to die on the cross for him? One theory suggests that Judas did so out of guilt for betraying him. However, the Bible records Judas’s death before that of Christ’s (Matthew 27:3-10).

Another theory purports that Jesus did indeed die, and a look-alike claiming to be the resurrected Christ fooled everyone in the aftermath of the crucifixion. One would think that those closest to Jesus would recognize the difference. This perhaps explains why some scholars put forth the theory that Jesus actually had a twin, with some claiming that it could have been Thomas, one of Jesus’s disciples, who was called Didymus, the Greek word for “twin.”

Some of these ideas stem from Gnostic texts, including The Acts of Thomas (not to be confused with The Gospel of Thomas) and The Second Treatise of the Great Seth. Gnosticism had many faces, but, basically, the religion elevated the spiritual and denigrated the physical, teaching that one achieved salvation through the attainment of secret knowledge rather than faith in Christ. Both texts were written late, and their authorship is in question. Therefore, they are not part of the Biblical canon and are considered heretical by the Christian Church.

6. Jesus as a Mythical Figure Theory

Some critics purport that Jesus was not a real historical figure, but a mythical one like the Persian Mithras or the Egyptian Osiris. However, most historians agree that there was indeed such a person as Jesus living in the 1st-century AD. They just do not all agree that he was God Incarnate.

There are many non-biblical sources that speak of him, including that of Tacitus, a Roman historian (54-120 AD) who wrote about Jesus and his followers, saying that their name came “from Christ, who, during the reign of Tiberius, had been executed by the procurator Pontius Pilate” (from his Annals).

Josephus, a Jewish historian (born 37 AD), mentions Jesus in his Antiquities of the Jews and The Jewish War. Scholars note that Christians might have embellished what he wrote to make a stronger case for Christ’s divinity. However, most agree that the basic information he provides about Christ’s existence is authentic.

Other evidence regarding the historicity of Jesus comes from Pliny the Younger, a Roman senator and historian who lived in the 1st-century AD, Suetonius, a Roman historian who writes of “Chrestus” in his The Twelve Caesars, published in 120 AD, and Lucian of Samosata, a 2nd-century Greek satirist who speaks of a man crucified in Palestine and the Christians who followed him in his The Passing of Peregrinus.

Lastly, the early Church Father, Origen, wrote a text called Against Celsus in response to what Celsus, a philosopher who lived in the 2nd century AD, said about Jesus. He claimed that Christ was the illegitimate son of Mary and a Roman soldier and vilified Jesus as a charlatan who performed acts of sorcery and made thieves of his followers.

Conclusion

Paul noted that, if Christ did not rise from the dead, then his followers were to be pitied because, if he didn’t experience a true physical resurrection, then neither would they, and they would die in their sins (1 Corinthians 15:19). It is for this reason that Christians defend the event so passionately. Faith in the biblical account of it came into question in the 18th century because of a change in worldview that no longer accepted the possibility of miracles.